Lecture Notes for Week Thirteen

Lecture Notes for Week Thirteen
(4/20 4/22 4/24)

Monday, 4/20: Alexander the Great

Sources:

Arrian, Diodorus Siculus, Quintus Curtius, Plutarch, Justin (Pompeius Trogus) all late
But, based on earlier sources by contemporaries of Alexander

Callisthenes: nephew of Aristotle, accompanied expedition as 'official historian'
Nearchus: admiral of Alexander's fleet from Indus to Persian gulf
Ptolemy: one of Alexander's generals
Aristobulus: engineer/architect on Alexander's expedition
Cleitarchus: not part of the expedition; wrote a romantic, popular account of Alexander in the late fourth century

Arrian used mainly Ptolemy and Aristobulus, and himself having considerable military experience is able to understand their military details quite well and transmit them in detail

Alexander's ascendancy to the throne:

immediately faced with a number of threats:

Hellenic confederacy states, Thracians, Illyrians all saw in Philip's death the opportunity for shaking off the yoke of Macedonia
Rival claimant to the throne: Philip had an infant son by the neice of his general Attalus

Late summer 336 moved into Greece

Thessalians held Tempe pass, so Alexander carved out a new pass along Mt. Ossa along the coast
Once they were flanked, the Thessalians quickly conceded to Alexander, as did all the other states as he marched further south with his army, with no boodshed
At Corinth, the confederates elected him general in his father's place

Meanwhile, Attalos, his neice, and her son (Alexander's half-brother) assasinated
335: Alexander campaigns in Thrace and Illyria to secure Macedonia before moving into Asia

close calls, especially with the Illyrians, but eventually settled decisively

But immediately, news of new trouble in Greece arrives

Darius, who took the Persian throne in 336, is sending overtures and subsidies to the Greek cities in the hope of getting them to revolt, to keep Alexander busy in Europe
Rumor of Alexander's death in Thrace (greatly exaggerated) begins to spread in Greece
Thebans besieged the Macedonian garrison on the Kadmea

Athens sent material help, though no men
other states (Elis, Aetolia, Arcadia) begin to mobilize

Alexander moved on Thebes around Sept. 335, took the city by storm

population massacred, though not under Alexander's orders -- he halted the slaughter as soon as he could
convened the Hellenic confederacy to decide the fate of Thebes:

decision to level the city, sell the population into slavery
rest of Greece, at this signal, quieted down

The Persian Expedition

Having settled Greece, Illyria, and Thrace, Alexander is now ready to pick up where his father had left off
Spent the winter 335-334 making military preparations and setting the affairs of Macedonia in order
Alexander's original intent:

liberate cities of Asia Minor?
Conquer all of Persia?

Crossed his forces from Sestos to Abydos, where Parmenio, having been sent by Philip into Asia, was still holding a bridgehead.
Summary of forces:

32,000 infantry, plus ca. 8,000 already in Asia

included, in addition to Macedonian army, some 8,000 Balkan troops and 12,000 Greeks (5,000 of which were mercenaries)

5,100 cavalry

1,800 Macedonian, 1,800 Thessalian, 900 Thracian, 600 Greek

Fleet of 182 ships
Persian satraps in Asia Minor have available ca. 20,000 cavalry plus 20,000 Greek mercenary infantry, c. 400 ships

Alexander's Immediate concerns:

fleet not big enough to deal with the Persian fleet at sea, so Alexander has to disable it by concentrating first on the coast and securing all potential Persian naval bases
an army this large (plus ship crews totalling c. 36,000) has to be fed and paid, and their going to have to live off the land their in, so it's important for Alexander to begin his conquests rapidly

Visit to Troy

Battle of Granicus

Memnon, the commander of the Greek mercenaries working for Persia, wants to avoid battle with the Macedonian infantry, advocated a scorched-earth policy to deny Alexander the opportunity to support his troops
But the Persian satraps don't want to do this, decide to meet Alexander's army
Persians took up a position at the Granicus river, at a stteply-banked point
Alexander, on the third day after his army had crossed the Hellespont, went forward to meet them

had with him 13,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry
scouts reported that the Persian forces were deployed along the river, with the cavalry on the bank stretching about a mile and a half, with the Greek mercenaries deployed behind them, on higher ground, in phalanx formation

Alexander's forces deployed from marching column into fighting formation as they approached, with cavalry on both wings of the infantry
Alexander extended his line to avoid being outflanked by the Persians

Placed left half under Parmenio's command, commanded the right himself
sent special cavalry squadron, with supporting infantry, from his center right charging into center of the Persian line

took heavy losses, but did its job of disrupting the Persian line, giving Alexander the opportunity he needed
Alexnader moved in with the Companion cavlary and broke through the Persian line

several Persian nobles tried to kill alexander, but he and his bodyguard repelled or killed them

with the breaking of the Persian center, the Persian wings fell back

Rather than pursue Persian cavalry, Alexander concentrated on the Greek mercenaries

sent cavalry upon their flanks and rear, attacked their center with his infantry

Greek mercenaries broke immediately, but were boxed in: only 2,000 taken prisoner, most of the rest slaughtered

Alexander's losses were only 150, most of them in the initial cavalry assault against the Persian center

After Granicus

In the wake of the battle, Alexander is able to move down the coast of Ionia and liberate the Greek cities with almost no resistance

Sardis, the main persian center in Asia Minor, fell without a fight
At Miletus, Persian fleet trapped Alexander's fleet in the harbor

Alexander siezes the water supply of the Persian fleet on the coast, forcing it to withdraw

in the wake of this, Alexander sent most of the fleet back to Greece, seeing it as more of a liability than an asset.
Persians agian tried to stop Alexander's advance at Halicarnassus, but he quickly took the city by storm.
Thus in one summer, Alexander had achieved his main alleged objectives, the liberation of the Ionian cities

333: Moves into central Asia Minor to secure his control over the coast

April: takes Gordium

'Gordion knot': anyone who can untie it would rule Asia; Alexander cut it

Meanwhile Persian resistance in the area weakend with the death of Memnon; his replacement in July 333, another pharnabazus, doesn't do a whole lot

it would appear that Darius is intending at this point to moblize the full Persian army and take the offensive from the heart of the Persian empire

By end of summer 333 Alexander has moved down into Tarsus at the 'corner' of the Mediterranean, meeting some minor resistance at the pass of the 'Cilician Gates'

from here he can move down the coast of Syria and into Egypt, thus rendering the Persian fleet ineffective and protecting his rear as he moves east into Mesopotamia

Illness delays Alexander at Tarusus in August and September

by mid-October, Alexander knows of Darius' mobilization in Babylon
anxious to complete his siezure of the coast lest he get pinned in by the Persian fleet on the west and army on the east

Got moving again in Novermber, when he receives word that Darius is on the plains of Syria

Wednesday, 4/22:

The Battle of Issus

After recovering from his illness, Alexander ready to continue his campaigns
Sent Parmenio forward to occupy the Syrian gates, to the south

Topography of the region: Cilicia closed off on three sides by high mountain ranges

Taurus mountains to north and west; Alexander had come through the Taurus Cilician Gates to Tarsus
Amanus mountain range hems in the plain around the gulf of Issus to the east and south-east, with only a few narrow passes
Amanus range extends to the south of the plain, through which are a few good passes

According to Arrian, as he was mobilizing his army east of Tarsus, received word from Parmenio that Darius was encamped at Sochi, two days' march east of the Syrian gates

Alexnader hurried forward, hoping to engage Darius in a decisive battle

covered ca. 70 miles of rough terrain in two days to Alexandretta
then recieved the report that Darius was in his rear!

confirmed the report with a naval reconnaisance

An alternative account (Curtius) may be more likely:

Alexander knew of Darius' approach even while at Tarsus, but takes a defensive, rather than offensive posture:

moved south of Issus, where he held a war council:

Parmenio advised staying put

wait for reenfocements from Macedonia
better to fight within the narrow confines of the coastal plain than out in the open, since Daius will have the numerical superiority

Meanwhile, Darius is advised by his Greek mercenaries to withdraw into the wide plains of Mesopotamia, where he can use his numerical advantages, but Darius is anxious for a battle before the onset of winter; when it eventually became clear that Alexander wasn't going to leave the coastal plain, he decided to try to force the issue

enters Cilicia, captures Issus, and marches south to the Pinarus river

At this point Alexander receives word of Darius' position, and confirms it

Persian forces:

reported as between 300,000 and 600,000: obviously an exaggeration; 75,000-100,000, plus 20,000 cavalry moe likely?

Once Alexander has confirmed Darius' presence in his rear, he hastens to deal with it

Marched during the night to within several miles of the Pinarus
On the following morning, led the army forward in column, deployed into line of battle as they approached the river

difficult manouvers, since the plain widened as it approached the river

Order of battle:

Persians

deployed infantry behind a screen of light infantry and cavalry

ca. 20,000 Greek mercenary hoplites in the center of the line
lighter infantry on the wings, screened by archers
Asiaitic troops in the rear
Strong force of light-armed troops on the left, along the foothills, in advance of his line
banks of the river reenfoced at its more accesible points with stockades

Alexander

Parmenio with Thessalian cavalry on the left, with archers and javelin-men behind them
Phalanx brigades in center with the Hypaspists on the center right
Companion cavalry on the right, with support of light-armed troops
sent a detachment of light-armed troops to counter the threat of the Persian light-armed troops in the foothills, but the Persians withdrew at the Macedonian approach, so this squadron was able to strengthen Alexander's right during the battle

Tactical plans:

Darius probably planning to flank Alexander with his cavalry, particularly on his right, where the cavalry can use the level ground along the coastline; then wheel around to smash the Macedonian infantry in the rear
Alexander planning to use the cavalry to break the Persian line, giving his infantry an opening
Plans (typical of the Persians and Macedonians) were thus in a sense complimentary

Battle

Alexander moved his troops steadily forward
when they came within range of the Persian bows, he ordered a charge

infantry advanced on the double
Alexander led the Companion cavalry into the river, up the far bank, through the archers, and into the infantry on the Persian left center

Two rightmost battalions of the Macedonian phalanx follow Alexander, but the ramaining four battalions couldn't force their way up the banks, leaving a gap in the Macedonian line
Darius' mercenaries rushed into the gap, struggle ensued in which 120 Macedonians fell

once the two battalions on the left had finished with the Persian right, they wheeled back to deal with the mercenaries and relieve the Macedonian center

On the Macedonian left, Pesian cavalry had crossed the river and forced the Thessalians back

diffiuclt struggle: Thessalians were outnumbered, and the Persian cavalry was more heavily armoured
but they held their positions to prevent the Persians from outflanking the line on the left

As Alexander and the Companions break through the Persian line, Darius takes flight, first on chariot, and then, jettisoning his weapons, on horseback

flight of the king and the breakup of the Persian center caused the Persian right to break off its engagement with the Thessalian cavalry
Alexander doesn't pursue until he's relieved his own center

General rout ensued

Persians retreating along narrow, crowded routes are easy targets for Alexander's army
Alexander pursued Darius until darkness fell, but he gets away, although his arms are captured, as are his wife, mother, and infant son in the Persian camp

Darius with about 4,000 surivors manages to escape into Babylon
most of the Greek mercenaries escaped, but not with Darius

Macedonians lost about 450 men, with 10 times as many wounded
Persian losses difficult to assess
Parmenio soon afterwards takes possesion of the Persian baggage depot in Damscus

this, along with the Persian camp at Issus, provides Alexander with tremendous booty

The Siege of Tyre

After Issus, Alexander refused the temptation to pursue Darius east, and stayed focused on his goal of securing the Mediterranean coast
Headed south, and the great Phonecian cities of Byblos and Sidon surrendered
At Tyre, however, he met resistance

Highly fortified island city

circumference of ca. 3 miles
about one and a half miles from the coast

Proposed neutrality rather than submission, but Alexander felt he couldn't leave such a strong naval base uncontrolled

ordered the army to take the city

January 332: army began to construct a 200-foot wide mole from the coast to the city

as the construction approached the city, the Tyrians started attacking with catapults from their walls and with ships
Alexander built two 150-foot towers at the end of the mole

used rawhide screens to protect them from flaming arrows
armed with catapults to return fire at the walls and harass the ships

Tyrians used a horse-transport ship loaded with flamable materials to burn down Alexander's towers
Alexander had his men widen the mole so that more towers could be constructed
At this point, Alexander is reenforced by fleets from the Phonecian cities under his control

with some 200 ships, he's able to blockade Tyre by sea, and protect his mole from attacks by ship

Began assaulting the walls directly with the ships

tied several ships together and anchored them up against the walls to use them as platforms for battering rams

Tyre sent divers underwater to cut the ropes of Alexander's anchors, so Alexander switched to chains
Also had to tow away large boulders that the Tryians had dropped to keep Alexander's ships away from the walls
Tyrians dropped things like hot sand and oil from the walls

Eventually, after seven months of siege operations, the Macedonians managed to breach a section of the wall on the south

July 332 Alexander ordered an assault on the city

sent ships in to blockade the two harbors of Tyre, on the northeast and southeast
attacked from the end of the mole
sent troops in through the breach in the wall to the south

Took the city, killed some 8,000 Tyrians and sold 30,000 captives into slavery

Alexander's move to Egypt

After Tyre, Alexander continued to push down the Mediterranean coast

encountered resistance at Gaza

another siege, not as protracted
Alexander built a huge mound along the city's walls, stormed the city

Moved on into Egypt, encountering no significant resistance

by November 332, Alexander in control of the Egyptian coast (thus securing the entire relevant seaboard), spent the winter preparing to move into Persia and challenge Darius in the heart of his empire

established the city of Alexandria
visited the temple of Ammon at the Siwah Oasis in early 331

Alexander moves East

After wintering in Egypt, Alexander doubles back to Tyre, where he spends a few months planning the expedition into Mesopotamia

Since Issus, Darius has made a few attempts at diplomacy

offered an alliance with Alexander in return for the release of the captured members of his family

Alexander dismissed the offer as one only appropriate among equals, and Darius had proven to be less than Alexander

later, offered a huge ransom for the royal family, along with the turnover of all Persian territory west of the Euphrates, a marriage with Darius' daughter, and alliance

but Alexander recognized that he could get all that for himself, and that without moving east of the Euphrates and eliminating Persian power completely, he would have no secure eastern frontier

Headed northeast from Tyre, and by early August reached the Euphrates

here he learns that Darius was waiting with a large army outside Babylon, far to the southeast

But Alexander isn't going to let Darius choose the battlefield

continues northeast, in territory with good pasturage and produce for supply
Darius finally gives up on his position at Babylon, moves north across the Tigris, hoping to use it as his line of defence against Alexander

when Alexander learned of this, he made a forced march to reach the Tigris first, crossed it north of Darius' camp
rested a few days, then moved south until he captured an advanced Persian force, from which he learned that Darius' full army was nearby
Paused for several more days to fortify a camp and prepare for the upcoming battle

Friday, 4/24:

The Battle of Gaugamela

Summer 331: Headed northeast from Tyre, and by early August reached the Euphrates

here he learns that Darius was waiting with a large army outside Babylon, far to the southeast

But Alexander isn't going to let Darius choose the battlefield

continues northeast, in territory with good pasturage and produce for supply
Darius finally gives up on his position at Babylon, moves north across the Tigris, hoping to use it as his line of defence against Alexander

when Alexander learned of this, he made a forced march to reach the Tigris first, crossed it north of Darius' camp
rested a few days, then moved south until he captured an advanced Persian force, from which he learned that Darius' full army was nearby
Paused for several more days to fortify a camp and prepare for the upcoming battle

Darius, meanwhile, having been outmarched by Alexander's army and unable to prevent him from crossing the Tigris, is anxious to find a battlefied suitable for his forces

chooses a site near the village of Gaugamela, where the ground is mostly level and open

army leveled out any obstructions to allow war chariots to have full run of the battlefield

Alexander, before dawn Sept. 30 breaks camp and advnaces to a ridge from which he can observe the Persians

saw that he was greatly outnumbered: Darius had probably had on the order of 35,000 cavalry, and plenty of infantry, though it's impossible to say how much (Arrian's 1,000,000 clearly an exaggeration!)

Alexander's strength at this point around 40,000 infantry, 7,000 cavalry

Alexander took Parmenio's advice and avoided an immediate attack, to allow more time to survey the area more thoroughly
Darius meanwhile keeps his troops ready for battle through the following night

October 1: The battle

Orders-of-battle

Persian

Darius in center, flanked by 2,000 Greek mercenaries, bodyguard, and royal horse-guard
Right wing of 14,000 cavalry
Left wing of 18,000 cavalry and 3,000 Persian infantry
In front of the line, 200 scythe-chariots

also had 15 elephants with him, but they don't seem to get involved in the battle

Remaining infantry behind these lines

Macedonian

right wing of Companion cavalry

flank-guard of 1500 cavalry and 6,700 mercenary infantry, and light-armed troops to provide a flexible link with the Companions

in the center, the hypaspists and the 6 phalanx battallions
left wing of Thessalian cavalry, in echelon formation

flank-guard of mercenary cavalry and allied Greek cavalry totalling about 1000 and 5,500 Thracian infantry

Second line of infantry behind the phalanx, with orders to turn about if the enemy should penetrate to the rear
Thracian infantry posted behind battle-line to protect baggage and prisoners

Tactical intentions much like Issus

Darius hoping to absorb Alexander's charge on the left, and destroy it if possible; on the right, he hoped to smash through the Thessalian cavalry and outflank the Macedonian phalanx
Alexander planned to strike a decisive blow with the Companion cavalry on the right while the left held out

Late in the morning, Alexander gave the order to advance

advanced obliquely to the right, hoping to induce a Persian attack on that wing

also perhaps hoping to move to ground that Darius hadn't been able to level, to make chariots ineffective

Darius sent his cavlary units on the left to advance against Alexander's right

Alexander sent several squadrons ahead to meet them, and a stuggle ensued

Darius then sent the chariots forward, but Alexander's javelin-men were able wheel aside and disable the horses or drivers of most of them as they sped forward

Macedonian phalanx opened ranks to allow remaining chariots to pass through, and soldiers in the rear then ran them down

His 'secret weapon' having misfired, Darius orders the attack on the left

Parmenio was outflanked by the superior numbers of Persian infantry, and Persian units began to break through the Macedonian left-center

Desperate situation for Alexander's army

but the Persians who had broken the Macedonian line kept moving forward to try to loot the Macedonian camp, rather than wheeling around to hammer the Macedonians in the rear

Darius pressed on Alexander's right

in doing so, several Persian cavalry units moved ahead and left a gap between the Persian left cavalry and infantry
Alexander immediately siezed the opportunity and wheeled his cavalry wedge into the gap
broke through and turned against the center and Darius, followed by Macedonian infantry

Darius again panicked and took flight
Parmenio still hard-pressed on the left: this time word of the king's flight apparently hadn't reached the entire line. So Alexander has to relieve his left rather than pursue Darius

The Persian center, however, did flee with the king, and Alexander had to force his way through the crowds of Persian infantry, many of whom kept their formation in retreat

By the time Alexander breaks through to relieve Parmenio, he had managed to force the Persian cavalry back, and the entire Persian force was routed
Alexander again pursued Darius, but unsuccessfully

Consequences of Gaugamela

Alexander now supreme in the heart of the Persian empire

proceeds to take Babylon and Susa without resistance
Persepolis was defended, but Alexander was able to take it, too

January 330 Alexander burned the King's palace at Persepolis

Officially, the crusade against Persia is now over

Alexander from this point on considers himself not the leader of the allied Greeks against Persia, but as the King of Asia
Allowed the Greek allies to return home, though many of them stayed on as mercenaries

Alexander however still plans to continue his conquests

heads toward Ecbatana, where Darius had fled

Darius, however, is eventually killed by some nobles in northeastern Iran

From 329-327, Alexander is involved in difficult guerrilla fighting against the tribes in the exotic lands of Bactria and Sogdiana
Also during this phase of his campaign, there is growing dissension among the ranks

many of Alexander's lieutenants, including Parmenio, are executed during this period

Alexander moves into India

By 327, Alexander has Persia firmly under his control, and decides to move eastward into India
Crosses the Hindu Kush mountains via the Khyber Pass, crosses the Indus river

eventually meets concerted opposition in the Punjab, at the Hydaspes river, a tributary of the Indus, in May of 326

Indian King Porus (said to be some seven feet tall!) had an army of at least 30,000 infantry, 4,000 cavalry, 300 chariots, and 200 elephants

Alexander at this point had about 75,000 men in his total forces, but some of them are dispersed, and when he actually engaged Porus' army he had probably about 5,000 cavalry and 15,000 infantry with him.

Porus held a strong position on the Hydaspes to block Alexander's advance across it

river was deep and turbulent with the runoff of Himilayan snow
possibility of a head-on assault by Alexander made difficult by the presence of the elephants, which frightened the horses too much for them to be carried across on rafts,

Instead, Alexander adopted a ruse:

for several nights running, he marched his cavalry up and down the banks of the river, making lots of noise, to force Porus to move his elephants to match
eventually, Porus got tired of the chasing, and stayed in his camp

At that point, Alexander left his general Craterus at the original base with 5,000 troops and some cavalry, and himself moved (during the night and in the midst of a heavy rainstorm) 18 miles north.

circulated rumors, intended to reach Porus, that Alexander was planning to wait until the river receded before attempting to cross
left someone in his camp wearing his insignia to make Porus think he was still at base

Alexander crossed the Hydaspes north of Porus' position (with difficulty) and planned to strike

he had left Craterus with orders to cross the river if he himself could get Porus to turn to meet him, but only if the elephants were withdrawn from the banks; if they weren't, Craterus was to wait.

Alexander rode ahead with his cavalry, with the infantry following some 2 miles behind

Porus meanwhile had learned that Alexander was trying to cross the river, and sent a squadron of 2,000 cavalry with 120 chariots to defend the banks
They were too late, and as they came into view Alexander charged them in squadrons, eventually exhausting them and putting them to flight, capturing the chariots in the process

Porus decided to move his forces against Alexander, though he left a small guard with some elephants to prevent Craterus from crossing. Chose a battle site that was relatively unmuddy from the recent rain

Orders-of-battle

Indian line extended about 2 miles

On each wing, 2,000 cavalry and 150 chariots
infantry in the center, with elephants in front at 50-foot intervals

Macedonian

Alexander bunched his cavalry on his right, with a detachment of about 1,000 on the right

Alexander expected Porus to move his right cavalry to this left to meet the assault of Alexander's cavalry, in which case this squadron was to move and come in behind the Indians
phalanx in center screened by archers

The battle

Alexander opened by sending forward a squadron of mounted archers on his right, to take out the Indian chariots on the left and disrupt their cavalry
Then moved with the Companions in column to encircle and flank the Indian left, hoping to draw the Indian cavalry away from the infantry line.
Porus brought his right cavalry across the line to support the left

the Macedonian cavalry squadron on the left moved in behind it to strike it in the rear
Kept Porus from integrating the two cavalry wings before Alexander could strike

Along with the cavalry strike, the Macedonian infantry moved forward to prevent the elephants from interfering with Alexander's cavalry

skirmishers did much of the work, shooting down drivers and and piercing the elephants themselves, though the Macedonian infantry did take some trampling casualties

Alexander's cavalry able to drive the Indian cavalry back against the elephants, at which point chaos ensued

elephants, boxed in by their own cavalry, had no room to manouver, ended up trampling their own side

Indians soon broke and fled

at this point Craterus is able to cross the river, and pursued with fresh troops
result is a substantial slaughter
Porus himself is wounded and captured

according to anecdote, when he was brought before Alexander, the Macedonian king asked him how he wanted to be treated. When Porus replied, 'As a king', Alexdander was impressed and ended up befriending Porus, and keeping his kingdom intact.

The Return

After the battle, Alexander established the cities of Nicaea and Bucephala (named after his horse, which, at 30 years old, had died of exhaustion in the battle)
Gave his troops a month of rest
Continued east for a bit, but soon the army began to demand a return home when they had reached the Beas river, another tributary of the Indus, in summer of 326

exhausted by the long campaign in general
discouraged by heat and rain
dreading further encounters with elephants
no idea how much further they'd be going

did Alexander hope to reach the ends of the earth, the Ocean, which he may have thought was nearby
or was he planning to advance until he had a secure eastern border with no threatening opposition (possibly the Ocean)?

After several days of brooding, Alexander eventually relented

planned to return not the way he had come, though, despite the fact that, despite the distance, he still had lines of communication all the way back to Macedonia and probably would have had a relatively easy return
Constructed a fleet to transport the guards, Companions, archers, and some light-armed troops down the Indus, departed mid November

had forces of cavalry and captured elephants on either bank

with some campaigning along the way, reached the Indus delta July 325

At that point, Alexander takes part of his forces west by land, leaves the fleet to sail and meet up with him again at the head of the Persian gulf

fleet delayed because it hadn't understood the Indian monsoon that prevented westward navigation for several months
Alexander's forces had a desperate time crossing the Gedrosian desert

In 324, he's back in the heart of Persian territory, sets about dealing with various administrative matters, trying to make arrangements to keep his vast conquests running smoothly

Spring of 323 he's back in Babylon

Planning a campaign to conquer the Arabian peninsula

but in late May Alexander falls ill, and on 10 June dies

possibly long-term effects of alcoholism
possibly malarial fever, which might have developed into leukemia
Rumors that Alexander had been poisoned gradually

Perdiccas, who by now was Alexander's senior commander, claimed that Alexander gave him his ring shortly before his death, to signify the passing on of imperial authority
Among Alexander's reported last words:

when asked to whom he left his kingdom, he replied, 'to the stronges'
also declared, as his last recorded words, that all his foremost friends would hold a great funeral contest over him

double-meaning of homeric-style funeral games on the occasion of a hero's death, and the struggle he expected to ensue among his officers for control of the vast new Macedonian empire.