In 371 B.C., a long-brewing conflict between Sparta and Thebes came to a boil at the battle of Leuctra, which resulted in a stunning defeat for the Spartans. The Theban victory has generally been attributed to a peculiar tactical development, the embolon ('wedge' or oblique formation), which makes this battle particularly important in the history of Greek warfare. We'll be talking about it in class in a few weeks, but before then I want you to have an opportunity to look carefully at the battle on your own.

The major literary sources for this battle are Xenophon's Hellenica (Sage §196), Plutarch's Life of Pelopidas (Sage §197) reader, and Diodorus Siculus (Course reader pp. 53-55). Your assignment is to carefully read these sources, and from them reconstruct battle as carefully as you can. Using the sources, supplemented with what you know of hoplite warfare in general, evaluate the strategies employed by both sides, explain how they played out, and try to determine why the Thebans were victorious. At every step, be sure to support your statements with close reference to the ancient sources. Topography is relatively unimportant to the study of this battle (the plain of Leuctra is more or less unencumbered), so our evaluation of the battle depends more or less entirely on the literary sources.

I'm not expecting a definitive account of the battle of Leuctra in this exercise -- as you'll quickly see, the ancient accounts are unclear, and even contradictory, on various points. The battle of Leuctra has received more modern scholarly attention that probably any ancient Greek battle (with the exception perhaps of Marathon), so don't be intimidated! I'm more concerned with your ability to use the ancient sources carefully to construct a plausible account, and in that regard you'll need some information about your sources to evaluate their usefulness:

Xenophon lived from c. 428 - c. 354, and so he was alive at the time of the battle of Leuctra, though not present at the battle itself. He was an Athenian soldier, with strong interests in military matters: among his numerous writings are several treatises on military theory and practice, as well as historical accounts of much of the military activity during his lifetime. Also relevant to his account of Leuctra is the fact that he was very much pro-Spartan, and had spent much of his life at Sparta (in exile from Athens), and moved in influential circles there.

Plutarch and Diodorus are much later sources (Plutarch lived c. 50 AD - 120 AD, Diodorus wrote from c. 60 BC - 30 BC), but both will have had at their disposal earlier sources that no longer survive for us. In the case of Plutarch, you should be aware that he was a native of Chaironeia in Boiotia, and in general tends to portary Boiotians (including Thebans) favorably.

Your essay should be in the neighborhood of two pages, typed, double-spaced, with reasonable font size and margins. Feel free to discuss the assignment with your colleagues or with me. You should also feel free to consult the accounts of the battle in Sage and Burn, but even if you concur with their evaluations, be sure in your essay to support your positon with specific reference to your ancient sources.

I'm happy to consult with you on any aspect of the assignment, and I recommend that you plan far enough in advance that you will have time to do so if necessary. If you care to give me a draft in advance, I will be glad to review it with you.

Papers will be due at the start of class on Friday, March 27. No late submissions will be accepted.